The Warring States period was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It was a period of seven states (Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, & Zhao) who battled for control of China.
The Warring States started when the vassal states of the Zhou Dynasty all decided to declare independence. The collapse of the dynasty fractured into a mass of smaller states, who all claimed the Mandate of Heaven (China).
During this period of three centuries various rival states all battled for territorial advantage and total control of China. It ultimately ended when the Qin state was victorious and finally established a unified China for the first time. It was a chaotic period that help create some of China foundational philosophies. Over time the mass of states in the initial collapse of the Zhou dynasty were formed into the seven larger states that would eventually via for complete control of the country.
It wasn’t just a period of warfare, it also saw significant developments in society, commerce, agriculture, philosophy and the arts. It also set the foundations for the creation of Imperial China.
One of the changes that took place during this period was with warfare. Battles had been previously conducted by small groups of chariots. The problem was driving a chariot into combat took years of dedicated training, alongside the martial training required. Each chariot was accompanied by a unit of infantrymen anywhere from 10-70 soldiers. Large armies could easily consist of a thousand chariots, with several thousand soldiers alongside. This was possible before the collapse of the Zhou dynasty, but in the wake of the collapse this wasn’t possible for many smaller states.
In each state a new ruler or king was declared alongside independence. Then they each started to look further afield converting their neighbour’s territory. This would lead to ever shifting alliances and constant conflict which gave the period its name. Huge armies were raised, chivalry was abandoned, and commanders campaigned hard to destroy their rivals. The ultimate prize being complete control of China.
The during the Warring states, this changed some stopped employing chariots such as Wu and Yue, who become successful by raising armies of infantrymen. Infantry armies were able to be more flexible than the traditional forces of infantry accompanying chariots. Officer class became more mobile commanding from horseback rather than a chariot. Other states followed in their wake and discarded the chariots to form armies made up with infantrymen.
Cavalry became a feature on the battlefield, horse archers and the iron weapons appeared on the battlefield. Suddenly troops were armed with swords and crossbows, which made warfare far deadlier than previously. The battles became faster and more dynamic, as well as sophisticated with subterfuge and espionage played a larger role. Troop deployment and movement became much more disciplined. Armies on the battlefield expanded on a massive scale from the normal 10,000 to over 200,000 infantrymen being deployed. It wasn’t unusual for some states to have nearly a million men in military service. Due to the massive numbers of soldiers most of them were either untrained or had very little training, so most battles became about numbers rather than fighting skill.
It was also around this time that many of the great military strategies were written such as Sun Zi’s Art of War, which is still highly regarded today. Along with this text there were several other military writings created many classics of ancient China that included Jiang Ziya’s Six Secret Teachings, The Methods of the Sima, Wei Liaozi and Three Strategies of Huang Shigong.
The states
Chu
Chu was one of the more important of the smaller states that contended for power in China during the Warring States period. Though towards the end of the period the government had become very corrupt, with the vast majority of the state’s treasury being used to pay the royal entourage. Also, by this time the army had deteriorated and was considered to be of very low quality. Chu was finally defeated by Qin around 224BC.
Han
Han was an ancient Chinese state during this period in Chinese history and is often referred to as Hann so as to distinguish it from the later Han Dynasty period. It was governed by a royal family who were ministers in the Jin State. They had slowly managed to pain power and wealth from the JIn royal family, and they eventually divided the state in to three smaller states Han, Wei and Zhao,
Han was at a disadvantage during this period because they were surrounded by much more powerful rivals. They were the smallest of the states and so were unable to compete against their much bigger rivals. They were eventually fell into decline and need to ask for military assistance from their rivals. The last king of Han was executed in 226 BC, they were the first state to fall to Qin in 230BC
Qi
Qi or Ch’I was one of the biggest and more powerful of the several smaller states that made up China during the Warring States period. During the 4th Century BC there was a change in the ruling house, this allowed them to become a dominant power in China, and so early in the 3rd Century they made a play to gain sole control of the country. This attempt led to the decline of the state and absorption by the Qin state.
Around 222BC Qi was one of the last states to be conquered by Qin, which in doing so the Warring Period came to an end and China was unified under Qin.
Zhao
Zhao was one of the main states to emerge from the fall of the Zhou dynasty, they were created from the three-way breakup of Jin, along with Wei and Han. Zhao was one of the few states who were powerful enough to be able to stand against the Qin military.
In 232BC the Qin forces were defeated by a Zhao army led by Li Mu, though the Zhao army suffered heavy losses and they had to retreat back to the capital. Zhao never really recovered from this battle and even though they were victorious they had been severely weakend.
Then two years later the state suffered an earthquake and a famine which further weakened the state. This prompted the Qin army to invade in 229BC from the North and South eventually leading to a stalemate between the two armies. Eventually with the loss of the Zhao general Li Mu, Qin finally conquered the state around 222BC.
Wei
The state was located in what is now referred to as the Shanxi province in north central China. Wei was originally a vassal kingdom who were annexed by their neighbour Jin around 661BC.
During the Warring states period Wei made the mistake of thinking Qin were weak and mainly ignored them as a real threat, so they concentrated most of their military trying to conquer states to the east who were rich in resources.
Wei eventually ended up in a state of constant conflict with Qin after losing a strategic stretch of land. They were even required to relocate the capital which was originally based in Anyi to Daliang. Wei was forced to surrender to the Qin forces around 225BC, after the Qin military under Wang Ben diverted the yellow river so that it flowed in Daliang destroying the city in a devastating flood.
Yan
Yan was one of the ancient states during the Zhou dynasty, its capital was known as Ji and was located where modern-day Beijing is. Yan first began in the Zhou Dynasty and after the fall of the Zhou the state survived to become one of the strongest in China. During the Warring States period they were one of the last to be conquered by the Qin. The state eventually fell around 222BC, just a year before the declaration of the Qin Empire. After the collapse of the Qin Empire, they briefly gained independence before being swallowed by the Han Dynasty.
Qin
During the Warring States period Qin rose to become the most dominant state and would eventually unify the country. It most famously known today because of the Terracotta army discovered in the 70’s by a farmer working in his fields.
The Qin Ying Zheng formulated a plan to conquer the states, by allying with a distant state to conquer a nearby neighbour. Slowly over time they conquered each state to eventually become the dominant state and unify the country under a single leader.
The Qin would only last a few years eventually falling in 209BC, but they would have a lasting influence on the dynasties that followed. They left behind two great pieces of architecture, the Great Wall of China, and a palace for the first emperor. They also contributed to the simplifying and standardising of the emerging written Chinese language.
This only a brief overview of this period, for more in-depth information there are plenty of book and websites on the subject. It’s a period of intrigue and conflict as one state rose to dominate eventually unifying the country and setting China on its path to the China we see today.
Inspiration from Film and TV
Kings War (Netflix, China) also known as Legend of Chu and Han, is a Chinese television series based on the events in the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the fall of the Qin dynasty and the founding of the Han dynasty.
The series is set during the final years of the chaotic Qin dynasty and traces the origins of Liu Bang and Xiang Yu: one, a middle-aged hooligan who nonetheless has his personal charm; the other, a young grandson of a famous general of Chu during the Warring States and anxious to restore his destroyed kingdom. After the death of Qin Shihuang, Qin quickly descended into chaos, and the stage is set for the two men to rise to prominence, but ultimately, only one man can become the next emperor of China.
Hero (2002 film) The historical background of the film refers to the Warring States Period in ancient China, when China was divided into 7 countries. In 227-221 BC, the Qin state was about to unify the other six states, and many patriots from other states assassinated the king of Qin when they were about to commit suicide. One of the most famous incidents was Jing Ke’s assassination of the King of Qin
The Warring States is a 2011 Chinese film directed by Chen Jin. The story takes place during the Warring States period, but is only very loosely based on the actual history. The plot focuses on the rivalry between military generals Pang Juan and Sun Bin.
Little Big Soldier takes place during the Warring States period of China and tells the story of three men and a horse. An old foot soldier and a young high-ranking general from a rival state become the only survivors of a ruthless battle. The soldier decides to capture the general and bring him back to his own state in hopes for a reward in return.
The Warring States Period is a documentary drama that follows the heroic figures of the seven states Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei and Qin and retells the rise and fall of a nation through realistic depictions of the events from the demise of the Warring States Period until the unification under Qin rule.
Miniatures
1st Corps – Curteys Miniatures (https://1stcorps.co.uk/product-category/ancients/warring-states-chinese/)
This is a range of 28mm figures that includes cavalry, archers, crossbow, spear/halberdiers, swordsmen, commanders and chariots.
Caesar Miniatures
This is a Taiwan based toy soldier company, they produce a range of 1/72 figures that includes the Qin army, there is a review in this issue.
Eureka Miniatures (https://www.eurekamin.com.au/)
Another 28mm range that includes infantry, cavalry and chariots.
Musket, Sword and Paint 